THE END OF A HOT WAR AND THE BEGINNING OF A COLD ONE

 

My review of Winston Churchill’s Triumph and Tragedy (1953)

Part VI of Winston Churchill’s World War II memoirs

(Rating 4 of 5)

                In the final volume in his memoirs of World War II Winston Churchill takes us from the beginnings of D-day to the final destruction of Hitler’s Germany and the creation of the bi-lateral post-war world that would consumed by what we refer to as the Cold War.  Throughout the final books in this volume you feel that Churchill is more and more the man abandoned.  On side he has Roosevelt dying on him and having to cultivate a new relationship with Truman.  On the other side he has Stalin ever increasing his grip on Eastern Europe building what Churchill would later the call the Iron Curtin. In the end he is ultimately abandoned by the British people who had led to victory in this conflict when in their first opportunity to choose a government in ten years they toss him out. 

                In the beginning of the book D-Day is ongoing Churchill sees all of this through letters of the various commanders.  As the allies push through he makes the point that it was in Allies’ good luck that Hitler focused less on bombers and instead just missiles.  For as the Allies pushed through German forces’ abilities proved inefficient compared to the technological prowess of the Allies.

                As the war pushes on it becomes clear that the Allies are going to win it is no longer of ‘if’ but ‘when.’  At this point plans are going to have to be made.  What if Hitler himself offers unconditional surrender?  There was a strong feeling that they should not negotiate with war criminals.  So they refuse Hitler’s hypothetical offer and anyone else who was in the Nazi hierarchy.  Instead wait for some other government to come to power to surrender.  I wonder however if by holding this view Churchill would be subjecting this hypothetical peace government to the same blame the Weimar Republic had after the last war.  

                It was important to come up with a plan and be able to adapt to changing circumstances but on the Atlantic Churchill’s most powerful friend was becoming weaker and weaker as his physical condition continued to deteriorate.

“I lunched there on September 19.  Harry Hopkins was present.  He was obviously invited to please me.  He explained to me his altered position.  He had declined in the favour of the President.  There was a curious incident at the luncheon, when he arrived a few minutes late and the President did not even great him.  It was remarkable how definitely my contacts with the President improved and our affairs moved quicker as Hopkins appeared to regain his influence.  In two days it seemed to be like old times.  He said to me, ‘You must know I am not what I was.’ He had tried too much at once.  Even his fullness of spirit broke under his variegated activities.” (p. 161)

Roosevelt with little time left.

One thing Churchill tries to dispel is the myth of Yalta.  That Roosevelt’s growing weakness contributed to the Allies getting fleeced.  One thing Churchill would later point out of the agreement itself was so bad why did Stalin violate it?  He also has to defend against the point that Britain went to war to protect Poland but when it came to Poland it seemed that Stalin got his way almost every time.   Churchill would continue to defend the decisions that were made while reminding everyone that they still needed the help of the Soviet Union.

 “It is not permitted to those charged with dealing with events in times of war or crisis to confine themselves purely to the statement of broad general principles on which good people agree.  They have to take definite decisions from day to day.  They have to adopt postures which must be solidly maintained, otherwise how can any combinations for action be maintained?  It is easy after the Germans are beaten, to condemn those who did their best to hearten the Russian military effort and to keep in harmonious contact with our great Ally, who had suffered so frightfully.  What would have happened if we had quarreled with Russia while the Germans still had three or four hundred divisions on the fighting front?  Our hopeful assumptions were soon to be falsified.  Still they were the only ones possible at the time.” (p. 402)

Yalta

On his new American ally in President Harry Truman, he was very impressed how quickly Truman seemed to grasp matters.  He did have some suspicions on some issues he may have been just piggy-backing off of Roosevelt’s policy. 

“President Truman’s first political cat which concerned us was to take up the Polish question from the point where it stood when Roosevelt died, only forty-eight hours earlier.  The document in which this was set fourth must of course have been far advanced in preparation by the State Department at the moment the new President succeeded.  Nevertheless it is remarkable that he felt able so promptly to commit himself to it amid the formalities of assuming office and the funeral of his predecessor.” (p. 486)

New Ally

Churchill was not given the opportunity to finish his own story.  As they were heading to the Conference to which the post-war world was to be build his party was defeated at the poles.  It should be noted that when this volume was printed Churchill was once again the prime minister but the defeat in the election after victory in war hurt him.  You can easily detect his bitterness in his statements about his resignation.

“In ordinary circumstances I should have felt free to take a few days to wind up the affairs of the Government in the usual manner.  Constitutionally I could have awaited the meeting of Parliament in a few days’ time, and taken my dismissal from the House of Commons.  This would have enabled me to present before resignation the unconditional surrender of Japan to the nation.  The need for Britain being immediately represented with the proper authority at the Conference, where all the great issues we had discussed were now to come to a head, made all delay contrary to the public interest.  Moreover, the verdict of the electors had been so overwhelmingly expressed that I did not wish to remain even for an hour responsible for their affairs.” (p.675)       

In closing I have to admit I found Mr. Churchill’s memoirs somewhat difficult to get through they lacked the narrative appeal of his History of the English Speaking Peoples.  Often things would be dragged down with long drown out letters that he easily could have summarized.  I think I will take a break from memoirs for a little while.

THE WAR WAGES ON

 

My review of Winston Churchill’s The Hinge of Fate (1950)

Part IV of Winston Churchill’s World War II memoirs

(Rating 3 of 5)

                The third book in Sir Winston Churchill’s World War II memoirs covers the year 1942 and most of 1943.  At this point the Grand Alliance was formed the United States of America, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain were combining their strengths to bring down the regime of the Axis leaders Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini.  Also on the Pacific the American and Royal Navies are waging war against the Japanese Empire. 

                Most of this book consists of is Churchill’s communications between his allies President Roosevelt and Premier Stalin, as well as numerous communications back and forth between him and his subordinates.  The book is a middle chapter with neither a real beginning nor real end.  Churchill mostly discusses the military campaigns in Africa, pressure from the Soviets for a second front in Europe, sea battles with the Japanese, and some internal political struggle within Great Britain itself. There are points where the book focus not on the main events at the time but on plans and discussions for what is about to come.  This can be especially dark when reading about the discussions on weapons research.

“I told the President in general terms of the great progress we had made, and that our scientists were now definitely convinced that results might be reached before the end of the present war.  He said his people were getting along too, but no one could tell whether anything practical would emerge till a full-scale experiment had been made.  We knew what efforts the Germans were making to procure supplies of ‘heavy water’—a sinister term, eerie, unnatural, which began to creep into our secret papers.  What if the enemy should get an atomic bomb before we did!  However skeptical one might feel about the assertions of scientists, much dispute among themselves and expressed in jargon incomprehensible to laymen, we could not run the mortal risk of being outstripped in this awful sphere.” (p. 380)

                Julius Caesar may have a mocked his defeated rivals for making plans about what they were going to do when they came to power after his defeat, but in actuality is actually smart to make plans for what is to come after the conflict.  It is how you win the peace after you have won the war.  Amongst the allies there was a good deal of talk about what the postwar world was going to look like especially in Europe.

“In the course of a general talk I said that the first preoccupation must be to prevent further aggression in the future by Germany or Japan.  To this and I contemplated an association of the United States, Great Britain, and Russia.  If the United States wish to include China in association with the other three, I was perfectly willing that this should be done; but, however great the importance of China, she was knocked comparable to the others.  On these Powers would rest the real responsibility for peace.  They together, with certain other Powers, to form a Supreme World Council.” (p.802)

FDR, Churchill, and Stalin

At times during these discussions the future of a defeated Germany did not look very good for the Germans.  Germany, having only been unified since the Franco-Prussian war of the 1870s, was not naturally viewed by either Churchill or Stalin as being necessary to continue as a unified state.  We know now that Germany would spend over four decades split apart.  However the division between East and West Germany could have been far worse.

“I said that I would like to see Prussia divided from the rest of Germany, forty million Prussians being a manageable European unit.  Many people wish to carry the process of division further and divide Prussia itself into component parts, but on this I reserve judgment. Poland and Czechoslovakia should stand together and friendly relations with Russia. This left the Scandinavian countries and Turkey, which last might or might not be willing, with Greece, to play some part in the Balkan system.” (p.803)

Let's undo this!

Some of the things I enjoyed about this book happen not to be the great events that we already know happened but some of the smaller ones. For example, Churchill citing from memory American poetry from the US Civil War and impressing his audience.  More practically I love Churchill’s comments about when traveling across time zones biplane they should keep their eating routines identical to the time zone where they first got on the plane in order not to create confusion.

Having finished this book we are now two thirds of the way to completion of this entire series. Although I enjoyed his earlier books I am really more excited for the coming chapters as we come to the fall of Hitler and the rise of the United Nations.

 [Video posted by the YouTuber British Pathé]

 

GREAT BRITAIN STANDS ALONE (AT LEAST UNTIL THE USSR AND THE USA JOIN HER)

 

My review of Winston Churchill’s The Grand Alliance (1950)

Part III of Winston Churchill’s World War II memoirs

(Rating 3 of 5)

                Sir Winston Churchill’s third volume of his memoirs on World War II show him leading the British Government through its darkest days when all the major allies had fallen and they are fighting seemingly outnumbered and outgunned with their very surveil is in doubt.  This continues on until the Germany in an act of stupidity decides to attack the USSR before they finish the British off.  Then after the Japanese attack the United States, the United Kingdom forms with them and the Soviet Union “the Grand Alliance.”

                Unfortunately the book itself is not very exciting.  It mostly consists of messages sent back and forth between Churchill and his various subordinates.  He is just receives, shouts back orders, and moves on to the next thing.  The coverage is broad.  In Churchill’s eyes you see the fighting in theaters all across the globe making it easy to understand why this is a “World War.” However Churchill is at his best as a writer when he gives his analysis on what is going on.  That is available in this book but there is little of it. 

Churchill in his Air Force Uniform

            A good example of some of Churchill’s better writing is in first section of the book where he discusses the Japanese threat to the British Empire.  The Japanese Empire, who were already on friendly terms and taking suggestions from Hitler’s Third Reich, had a lot to gain at the expense of the British.  Nevertheless they did not seem to take the Germans suggestion to ignore the Americans in the present.   

“This was for very different reasons also the German view.  Germany and Japan were both eager to despoil and divide the British Empire.  But they approached the target from different angles.  The German High Command argued that the Japanese ought to commit their armed forces in Malaya and the Dutch East Indies without worrying about the American Pacific bases, and the main fleet which lay or their flank.” (pg. 181)

Hideki Tojo, Prime Minster of Japan

My favorite part of the book had to do with the sinking of the Bismarck in a great sea battle with the Royal Navy.  There is a type of perverse beauty of a battle with great military and nautical minds going at it with fate of nations at stake.

“A northwesterly gale was blowing when the daylight came on the twenty-seventh.  The Rodney opened fire at 8:47 AM, followed a minute later by the King George V.  The British ships quickly began to hit, and after a pause the Bismarck too opened fire.  For a short time her shooting was good, although the crew after four grueling days, were utterly exhausted and falling asleep at their posts.  With her third salvo she straddled the Rodney, but thereafter the weight of the British attack was overwhelming, and within a half an hour most of her guns were silent.  A fire was blazing amidships, and she had a heavy list to port.  The Rodney now turned across her bow, pouring in a heavy fire from a range of no more than four thousand yards.  By 10:15 all the Bismarck’s guns were silent and her mast was shot away.  The ship lay wallowing in the heavy seas, a flaming and smoking ruin; yet even then she did not sink.” (pg. 318-9)

                Except she did sink, as Churchill found out the next morning and was happy to have everyone find that out when he announced it to the House of Commons.   It was one of the most daring adventures that the British had as they stood alone against the Nazi menace.

Hitler, the ever present threat 

                Then Hitler decided he didn’t like Stalin anymore and attacked the Soviet Union.  Even though the Russians were huge help as an ally, Churchill never liked Stalin or the Soviet state.  They British originally went to war to defend the rights of Poland and the two major aggressors were Hitler and Stalin.  In the book Churchill pivots back and forth from praising Russia as a great and important ally to calling them a burden and more trouble than they were worth.  In real life they extremely important and Churchill himself used the line of enemy of Hitler is our ally and even making an analogy to the biblical Satan.  In the book you can feel his contempt for them.  

“The Soviet Government had the impression that they were conferring a great favour on us by fighting in their own country for their own lives.  The more they fought the heaver that debt became.  This was not a balanced view.” (pg. 388)

Churchill didn't really want to be friends but didn't have much of a choice. 

A completely opposite view of the United States entering the war is giving by Churchill.  When the United States enters he basically declares victory.  Churchill’s mother was an American and for those of us who read his History of the English Speaking Peoples, we know Churchill considers the United States to be part of that group.   

“No American will think it wrong of me if I proclaim that to have the United States at our side was to me the greatest joy.  I could not foretell the course of events.  I do not pretend to have measured accurately the martial might of Japan, but now at this very moment I knew the United States was in the war, up to the neck and in to the death.  So we had won after all!  Yes, after Dunkirk; after the fall of France;….England would live; Britain would live; the Commonwealth of Nations and the Empire would live.” (pg. 606-7) 

Pearl Harbor 

 

                The rest of the book deals with the formation of the Grand Alliance, the Agreement that no peace be made without the consent of all, and the taking of the name “United Nations” that would later be the banner to which a new group that would form to maintain the peace after the war had drawn to a close. 

                In closing the memoirs thus far are not for the casual reader you have to have a strong appreciation for this topic to follow along in with this book.

[Video was put up by YouTube user Henrik Herlev}

 

GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE (THEN JUST GREAT BRITAIN)

 

My review of Winston Churchill’s Their Finest Hour (1949)

Part II of Winston Churchill’s World War II memoirs

(Rating 4 of 5)

                Like many people 2016 was rather ruff for me.  The loss of couple close relatives, chaos at work, and other issues forced my reading to take a huge hit.  That said I could go weeks without even touching one of my books.  I normally try to make myself at the very least read a chapter a day.  But this year that didn’t happen.  Even though I am writing this at the end of January I don’t expect to post it for a long while. (In fact, we are now in July of 2022 folks!)

                Well on with my review.  Their Finest Hour starts write where The Gathering Strom left off, the fall of Chamberlin’s government and the rise of Churchill as the Prime Minister.  I think American readers might be taken aback by how British Prime Minsters can rise and fall not by an election by just a reorganization of party.  As in the case with both David Cameron’s predecessor, Gordon Brown, and successor, Theresa May.  May is the Prime Minister currently. (Nope! Not anymore!) The executive power changes without the people having any say in it what so ever.   Yet in the United Kingdom it is the system they have and it is viewed as quite natural. 

Chamberlin stood aside for Churchill 

                It is useful trivia that Churchill was the last Prime Minister not to be the leader of party.  Chamberlin retained that for six months until he resigned for health reasons.  At first Churchill wondered if he should take it, since his government was an all talents government, but the more he thought of it allowing someone else to be the leader of the majority meant giving someone the power to bring down his government at will.  So he took the job.

                Despite being a supporter of Nevil Chamberlin and having tried to prevent his resignation, Churchill really enjoyed his new job.  This type of person Churchill was: when there was a crisis he wanted to be in the thick of it.  With the job of Prime Minister he was able to take on the challenge in the manner in which he most saw fit.

“In my long political experience I had held most of the great offices of State, but I readily admit that the post which had now fallen to me was the one I liked the best.  Power, for the sake of lording it over fellow-creatures or adding to personal pomp, is rightly judged as base.  But power in a national crisis, when a man believes he knows what orders should be given, is a blessing.  In any sphere of action there can be no comparison of number one and numbers two, three, and four.” (p. 15)

In taking command Churchill reorganized the government to be more efficient in war time.  He created a new ministry called the Minister of Defense and gave himself, as Prime Minister, the job.  This allowed all the military heads to report to a single executive authority. 

“In calling myself, with the King’s approval, Minster of Defence, I made no legal or constitutional change.  I had been careful not to define my right and duties.  I asked for no special powers either from the Crown or Parliament.  It was however, understood that I should assume the general direction of the war, subject to the support of the War Cabinet and of the House of Commons.   The key-change which occurred on my taking over was, of course, the supervision and direction of the Chiefs of the Staff Committee by a Minster of Defence with undefined powers.  As this Minster was also the Prime Minister, he had all the rights inherent in that office, including the very wide powers of selection and removal of all professional and political personages.   Thus for the first time the Chiefs of Staff Committee assumed its due and proper place in direct daily contact with the executive Head of the Government, and in accord with him had full control over the conduct of the war and the armed forces.” (p.16)

Churchill with King George VI

The first half of this book involves Great Britain and France against a revived Germany hell-bent on conquest.  They start at war against Germany alone but quickly Italy, who was already invading other counties, joins the fight as well.  Germany was prepared and the allies were not.  As a consequence France found itself pushed back into their own county.  They were beaten and at one point the Third Republic realized their end came in the way it began, with a German invasion.  Not all parties accepted this however. 

“It was clear that France was near the end of organized resistance, and a chapter in the war was now closing.  The French might by some means continue the struggle.  There might even be two French Governments, one which made peace, and one which organized resistance from the French colonies, carrying on the war at sea through the French Fleet and in France through guerrillas  It was too early to tell.  Though for a period we might still have to send some support to France, we must now concentrate our main efforts on the defence of our island.” (p. 159-60)

There a couple of things about the fall of France that I found fascinating.  The first was the state of the French Navy, where the main capital ships sat in the water for duration of the war officially in the service of the Vichy puppet government.  The second was the fact serious consideration was given to the idea of combining the United Kingdom and the French Third Republic would combine into one great supernation.  Basically reviving the old Plantagenet claim for King George VI. 

“He hoped with us that this solemn pledge of union and brotherhood between the two nations and empires would give the struggling French Premier the means to carry his Government to Africa with all possible forces and order the French Navy to sail for harbours outside impending German control.” (p.209)

King Edward III's old French claim revived for the 20th century

The second part of the book is “when England stood alone” against the German militarily might.  This part you get a view of Winston Churchill: war leader.  Giving orders to and receiving reports from his subordinates.   He also would write letters back and forth to President Roosevelt.  As time went on Great Britain would get pounded with bombs.  Churchill writes with admiration about the people partially the public servants who continued with their duties in the face of danger.  

“It will always add to the renown of the British Parliament that its Members continued to sit and discharge their duties through all this period.  The Commons are very touchy in such matters, and it would have been easy to misjudge their mood.  When one Chamber was damaged, they moved to another, and I did my utmost to persuade them to follow wise advice with good grace.  Their migrations will be recorded in due course.  In short, everyone behaved with sense and dignity.  It was also lucky that when the Chamber was blown to pieces a few months later, it was by night and not by day, when empty and not full.  With our mastery of the daylight raids there came a considerable relief in personal convenience.  But during the first few months I was never free from anxiety about the safety of the Members.  After all, a free sovereign Parliament, fairly chosen by universal suffrage, able to turn out the Government any day, but proud to uphold it in the darkest days, was one of the points which were in dispute with the enemy.  Parliament won.”  (p. 356-7)

Hitler having conquered France

The land lease was historically one of the most important acts that President Roosevelt ever did.  It gave important aid to a past and future ally at a difficult time.   Without the British might of run out of capital before they ran out of bombs.

“Up till November, 1940, we had paid for everything we had received.  We had already sold $335,000,000 worth of American shares requisitioned for sterling from private owners in Britain.  We had paid out over $4,500,000,000 in cash.  We had only two thousand millions left, the greater part in investments, many of which were not readily marketable.  It was plain that we could not go on any longer in this way.  Even if we divested ourselves of all our gold and foreign assets, we could not pay for half we had ordered, and the extension of the war made it necessary for us to have ten times as much.  We must keep something in hand to carry on our daily affairs.” (p. 557-8)

By the close of the year the British people had prevailed.  They were headed into the year 1941 with a continued great challenge in front of them.  They would get help from the nations of their Empire and throughout the year the United States would provide arms before joining the conflict at years end.

{Video is from the 2017 film The Darkest Hour}

GETTING READY TO FIGHT AND THE EARLY FIGHTING

A review of Winston Churchill’s The Gathering Storm (1948)

Part of Winston Churchill’s World War II memoirs

(Rating 4 of 5)

                In the last few books I read by Winston Churchill he was discussing the history of English-speaking peoples.  That is a subject that he was not really that impartial about but he was certainly more so than about this topic.  For this is the first volume of his personal war memoirs and World War II was the event that was going to define his legacy.  Primary sources are always fascinating because you get into the head of the great actors who performed on the world stage.  You get to see their point of view on everything, how they saw other historical figures, and their thoughts on individual actions.  In that Winston Churchill never disappoints.

                This volume, The Gathering Storm, divides into two books.  The first book deals with Churchill as a parliamentary backbencher battling against the establishment, trying to alert the government and the people of the coming threat of the Nazi menace, and getting beaten back each time.  The second book deals with Churchill as the First Sea Lord, the British equivalent to the Secretary of the Navy in the United States, managing the Royal Navy in the first year of the war.  Of the two books I find the first and most interesting, it deals with a lot of political intrigue and the nature of humans particularly humans who have just gone through great conflict not too long ago.  The second book I find almost kind of dull. It consists Churchill’s day to day running of the Navy trying to decide to place what admiral where,  occasionally going to dinner with Prime Minister, and even though it’s about a great conflict doesn’t seem to have  much drama until the fall of the Chamberlain Government.

                In the beginning of this volume Churchill discusses the allotment of what led up to the war, like any good World War II story and he begins of course with a disastrous Treaty of Versailles.  Churchill points out the one hand the treaty left Germany practically intact with the largest homogeneous racial block in Europe, while on the other hand it ruthlessly punish the Germans trying to force them to pay these indemnities that would give fuel to the anger in the average German that would lead to the rise of Adolf Hitler.

“The economic clauses of the treaty were malignant and silly to the extent that it made the modestly futile.  Germany was condemned to pay reparations on a fabulous scale.  These dictates give expression to the anger of the victors, and to the belief of their peoples the any defeated nation or community can ever pay tribute on a scale which would meet the cost of modern war.” (pg. 7)

He also discusses in length of the Great Depression.  Americans tend to think of the Great Depression as an American event, it begins with the administration of Herbert Hoover is finally chased away by Franklin D. Roosevelt.  But in reality the Great Depression was a worldwide phenomenon that hurt many nations including those in Europe.  As bad as it was the American and British institutions survive the crisis, but many nations in Europe had governments that were now far younger and far more experimental.  For those fragile regimes the Great Depression would destroy them, for the people had very little faith in them to begin with.  Whereas the American and British Experience only saw the fall of politicians; both Herbert Hoover and Ramsay MacDonald paid the political price for being in office at the wrong time.  That is not to say that either one could not have done better but universal blame is beyond ridiculous.

“The consequences of this dislocation of economic life became world-wide.  A general contraction of trade in the face of unemployment and declining production followed.  Care restrictions were imposed to protect the home markets.  The general crisis brought with it acute monetary difficulties and paralyzed internal credit.  This spread of ruined unemployment far and wide throughout the globe.  Mr. MacDonald’s government, with all their problems behind them, saw unemployment during 1930 and 1931 bound up in their faces from one million to nearly three millions.  It was said that in the United States ten million persons were without work.  The entire banking system of the great Republic was thrown into confusion and temporary collapse.  Consequential disasters fell upon Germany and other European countries.  However, nobody starved in the English-speaking world.” (pg. 35)

I also found the view of Winston Churchill on what Germany should have done to be very interesting.  Ever a loyal monarchist, Churchill believed that many of the defeated European nations instead of tossing off their old monarchies should just embrace the British model and retained the sovereign for at the very least to be a rallying figurehead with little actual power in practice even if substantial power was retained on paper.  In Churchill’s view Hitler and the Nazi Party might have had a difficult time coming to power if Germany was able to retain a Kaiser in some form.  He was disappointed in failure of German officials to carry that through.

“This policy, if achieved, would have filled the void at the summit of the German nation towards which Hitler was now in evidently making his way.  In all the circumstances this was the right course.  But how could Bruening lead Germany to it?  The conservative element, which was drifting to Hitler, might have been recalled by the restoration of Kaiser Wilhelm; but neither the Social Democrats nor the trade-union forces would tolerate the restoration of the old Kaiser or the Crown Prince.    Bruening’s plan was not to re-create the Second Reich.  He desired a constitutional monarchy on the English lines.  He hopes that one of the sons of the Crown Prince might be a suitable candidate.” (pg. 63)

                Churchill was also does a great job explaining the political climate of the day.  There was a very strong and powerful antiwar movement in Great Britain; these were people who believe the tragedy of the First World War was caused by nations running into the conflict with reckless haste. If anything the lesson I think we should take from this is not to be overly simplistic in politics. The antiwar movement in the 1930s was right about the problems of World War I but they’re completely wrong about the situation World War II.   A generation later that antiwar movement would be in the right again and would find mainstream resistance mostly based on the legacies of the Second World War.  In Churchill’s view although being a politician in such climate is hard it is no excuse for negligence.

“It would be wrong in judging the policy of the British Government not to remember the passionate desire for peace which animated in the uninformed, misinformed majority of the British people, and seem to threaten with political extinction any party or politician who dared take any other line.  This, of course, is no excuse for the political leaders who fall short of their duty.  It is much better for the parties or politicians to be turned out of office than to imperil the life of the nation.  Moreover, there is no record in our history of any Government asking Parliament and the people for the necessary measures of defense and being refused.  Nevertheless, those who scared the timid McDonald – Baldwin Government from their path should at least keep silent.” (pg. 112)

Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, who Churchill blames for Britain's failed state of readiness for World War II 

One of the most interesting pieces of this book is the character of Neville Chamberlain. Most people remember Chamberlain from his embarrassing press conference in which he declared “peace in our time.”  Most Americans tend to associate Chamberlain as the British Herbert Hoover, the out of touch in at political leader who is pushed aside for a more dynamic Roosevelt in the person of Winston Churchill.  But nothing would be further from the truth.  Roosevelt was a Democrat and Hoover was a Republican.  Churchill and Chamberlain belong to the same party.  Chamberlain died shortly after leaving office, he had been set to hold a position Winston Churchill’s Government and if he had he might’ve repaired his broken legacy.  Since he can not, Churchill takes it upon himself to defend him.  Churchill wants the reader to know that the true villain of the story was not Neville Chamberlain but rather Stanley Baldwin.  In Churchill’s view Baldwin left the country dangerously unprepared and Chamberlain had little to work with.  Chamberlain was tasked with buying time so Britain could prepare to take on Germany.  Churchill says that Britain could never go to war for Czechoslovakia she just didn’t have the means.  Chamberlain’s failure to block it was not a failure like most people thought.

Neville Chamberlain, not so bad?

“Thus an administration more disastrous than any other in our history saw all its errors and shortcomings acclaimed by the nation.  There was, however, a bill to be paid, and it took the new House of Commons nearly ten years to pay it.” (pg. 180)
“There was also a serious and practical line of argument, albeit not to their credit, on which the Government could rest themselves.  No one can deny that we were hideously unprepared for war.  Who have a more forward in proving this and I and my friends?  Great Britain had allowed herself to be far surpassed by the strength of the German Air Force.  All are vulnerable points were unprotected.  Barely a hundred anti-aircraft guns could be found for the defense of the largest city and centre of population in the world; and these were largely in the hands of untrained men.  If Hitler was honest and lasting peace had in fact been achieved, Chamberlain was right.  If, unhappily, he had been deceived, at least we should gain a breathing – space to repair the worst of our neglects.  These considerations, and the general relief and rejoicing that the horrors of war have been temporally averted, commanded the loyal sent of the masses of Government supporters.  The House approved of the policy of His Majesties Government, ‘by which war was averted in the recent crisis,’ by 366 to 144.  The 30 or 40 dissident conservatives could do no more than register their disapproval by abstention.  This we did as a formal and united act.” (pg. 326-7)

As I mentioned earlier the second part of the book is simply Winston Churchill as the First Sea Lord.  It is a very good account of the day-to-day life of the First Sea Lord during World War II.  This section of the book was hardly interesting until the government battle at the end.  That battle resulted in the fall Neville Chamberlain’s Government.  What is interesting is that Chamberlain was not forced out of office in any sort of landslide election.  It is important to remember in  a parliamentary system they have what is called a vote of no-confidence that has the power to bring down a prime minister.  Chamberlain never received a vote of no-confidence his majority prevailed in Parliament.  It had however gotten smaller and this concerned him seeing as he was trying to fight a war.  Churchill urged him to stay on the Chamberlain felt he was too much of a lightning rod and a new government had to be formed with all the parties cooperating.  Chamberlain suggested to King George VI that Churchill be appointed his place.

“The King had made no stipulation about the Government being nationally character, and I felt that it my commission was in no formal way dependent upon this point.  But in view of what happened, and the conditions which had led to Mr. Chamberlain’s resignation, a Government of national character was obviously inherent in the situation.  If I had found it impossible to come to terms with the Opposition Parties, I should not have been constitutionally debarred from trying to form the strongest Government possible of all who would stand by the country in the hour of peril, provided that such a Government could command a majority in the House of Comments.” (pg.665)

So the book ends with Winston Churchill becoming his nation’s Head of Government.  He would be the coalition of all the parties against Nazi Germany.  His actions in that office are the subject of the following volumes.

{Video is from the film The Gathering Storm 2002}

HELLO PLINY

A review of The Letters of the Younger Pliny (110-113) translated by Betty Radice (1963)

(Rating 5 of 5)

His name was Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, he is comely referred to as Pliny the Younger to distinguish him from his uncle and adopted father, Pliny the Elder, who was a famous historian.  A few of the letters the younger Pliny discuss his uncle’s work, reputation, and famous death at the destruction of Pompeii.  Pliny the Younger was an official of the Roman Imperial government called the Principate.  The Principate was the system of rule by an emperor or 'first citizen' that was established by Emperor Augustus to de facto replace the Republic. Pliny had the privilege of serving in the best part of what was the golden age amongst golden age of the Roman civilization: the Pax Romana in the time of the Good Emperors in the reign of Trajan.  It was not always that way for Pliny, for was born in the time of Nero, whom his uncle despised.  During his own career he also had to endure the tyranny of the Emperor Domitian.  Pliny’s survival strategy was to keep quiet and not cause problems for anyone.  He would be able to resume his career and advancement with the coming of Nerva.

Statue of Pliny

            Historically Pliny is not important.  He was a semi-important person in his own time for he was in the Emperor’s inner circle and was appointed to govern a province.  However this is true for a number of officials in the Empire.  Although he had a nice life his accomplishments are not of any historical significance, except that Pliny’s correspondence survives.  He remembered to keep copies of his letters and publish them years later in a series of nine books; some of these letters are to people such as Tacitus, a famous Roman historian. After he died a tenth book was a published that contained his communications with Emperor Trajan.  Pliny is the only man of his rank and position in Roman society during this time period whose work survives.  It is Pliny whose eyes we use to examine the Roman Empire of the Pax Romana.

The Destruction of Pompeii

            Pliny enjoyed giving advice and playing the mentor to young up and coming Roman aristocrats.  He gives them advice on being a lawyer and being a career politician.  Pliny takes their success rather personally often telling friends he is more nervous when a young apprentice is up for election than for his own campaigns.  In one letter he answers one young attorney’s question on having been elected tribune of the people.  Pliny’s answer would have horrified Cato the Younger.  Pliny explains that it depends on how one chooses to view the office, either as a serious office or just a ceremonial figurehead job.  Pliny’s letter shows that many, if not most, saw through the Emperor’s disguise as ‘First Citizen.’ The Republic did not exist to govern the country anymore it was there only for show.  Nevertheless Pliny tells the newly elected tribune that when he held the job he took it very seriously.  Not to mention advising others who have held the offices that he once had. 

            Pliny also discusses being a lawyer in Rome, sending copies of his speeches, advising others on theirs, and going over funny court stories.  He mentions a number of times his views on inheritance, which was the majority of his cases.  His view was what the deceased wanted was more important than procedural law.

            Pliny is also quite taken with ghost stories telling a number of them including a time when the ghost of Emperor Tiberius’s younger brother, Drusus Nero, haunted Pliny the Elder.  One letter that I found an insightful to an average day in 2^nd century Rome was this one:    

          

To Minicius Funganus

"It is extraordinary how, if one takes a single day spent in Rome, once can give a more or less accurate account of it, but scarcely any account at all of several days put together.  If you ask anyone what he did that day, the answer would be: ‘I was present at a coming-of-age ceremony, a betrothal, or a wedding.  I was called to witness a will, to support someone in court or to act as assessor.’ All this seems important on the actual day, but quite pointless if you consider that you have done the same sort of thing every day, and still be more pointless if you think about it when you are out of town.  It is then that you realize how many days you have wasted in trivialities.

"I always realize this when I am at Laurentine, reading and writing and finding time to take the exercise which keeps my mind fit for work. There is nothing there for me to say or hear said which I would afterwards regret, no one disturbs me with malicious gossip, and I have no one to blame—but myself—when writing doesn’t come easily.  Hopes and fears do not worry me, and my time is not wasted in ideal talk; I share my thoughts with no one but my books. It is a good life and a genuine one, a seclusion which is happy and honorable, more rewarding than any ‘business’ can be.  The sea and shore are truly my private Helicon, and endless source of inspirations. You should take the first opportunity yourself to leave the din, the futile bustle and useless occupations of the city and devote yourself to literature or leisure.  For it was wise as well as witty of our friend Atulius to say that it is better to have no work to do than to work at nothing.” (Book 1, Letter 9 pg. 42-43)

            Of the collection of letters two are of the most famous are the ones that detail the destruction of Pompeii.  Both were to the historian Tacitus.  Pliny living at the outer edge of Vesuvius’ reach was able, with his mother, to be one of the lucky survivors.  At the edge of the letter he tells Tacitus that he doesn’t think the letter is history.  It is hard to tell but I think Pliny is being sarcastic.  If he is not than the statement is overly ironic.   

To Tacitus

"You say that the letter I wrote for you about my uncle's death made you want to know about my fearful ordeal at Misenum, for I broke off at the beginning of this part of my story. ‘The mind shrinks from remembering ... I will begin.’ 

           "After my uncle's departure I finished up my studies, I spent the rest of the day with my books, as this was my reason for staying behind. Then I took a bath, dined, and then dozed fitfully for a while. For several past days there had been earth tremors which were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania: but that night the shocks were so violent that everything felt as if it were not only shaken but overturned. My mother hurried into my room and found me already getting up to wake her if she were still asleep.  We sat out on in the forecourt of the house, between the buildings and the sea close by.  I don’t know whether I should call this courage or folly on my part (I was only seventeen at the time) but I called for a volume of Livy and went on reading as if I had nothing else to do.  Up came a friend of my uncle's who had just come from Spain to join him. When he saw us sitting there and me actually reading, he scolded us both—me for my foolhardiness and my mother for allowing it. Nevertheless, I remained absorbed in my book.   

           "By now it was dawn, but the light was still dim and faint. The buildings around us are already tottering, and the open space we were in was too small for us not to be in real and imminent danger if the house collapsed.  This finally decided us to leave the town.  We were followed by a panic-stricken mob of people wanting to act on someone else’s decision in preference to their own (a point in which fear looks like prudence), who hurried us on our way by pressing hard behind in a dense crowd. Once beyond the buildings we stopped, and there we had some extraordinary experiences which thoroughly alarmed us. The carriages we had ordered brought out began to run in different directions though the ground was quite level, and would not remain stationary when wedged with stones. We also saw the sea sucked away and apparently forced back by the earthquake: at any rate it receded from the shore so the quantities of sea creatures were left stranded on dry sand.  On the landward side a fearful black cloud was rent by forked and quivering bursts of flame and parted to reveal great tongues of fire, like flashes of lightning magnified in size. 

            "At that point my uncle’s friend from Spain spoke up still more urgently: ‘If your brother, if your uncle is still alive, he will want you both to be saved: if he dead, he would want you to survive him—why put off your escape?’ We replied that we would not think of considering our own safety as long as we were uncertain about his. Without waiting any longer, our friend rushed off and hurried out of danger as fast as he could.    

"Soon afterwards the cloud sank down to earth and covered the sea; it had already blotted out Capri and hidden the promontory of Misenum from sight. Then my mother implored, entreated and commanded me to escape as best I could—a young man might escape, whereas she was old and slow and could die in peace as long as she had not been the cause of my death too. I refused to save myself without her, and grasping her hand forced her to quicken her pace. She gave in reluctantly, blaming herself for delaying me.  Ashes were already falling, not as yet very thickly.  I looked round: a dense black cloud was coming up behind us, spreading over the earth like a flood. ‘Let us leave the road while we still can see,’ I said, ‘or we shall be knocked down and trampled underfoot in the dark by the crowd behind.’ We had scarcely sat down to rest when darkness fell, not the dark of a moonless or cloudy night, but as if a lamp had been put out in a closed room. You could hear the shrieks of women, the wailing of infants, and the shouting of men; some were calling for their parents, others for children or their wives, trying to recognize them by their voices. People bewailed their own fate or that of their relatives, and there were some who prayed for death in their terror of dying.  Many besought the aid of the gods, but still more imagined there were no gods left, and that the universe was plunged into eternal darkness forever more. There were people, too, who added to the real perils by inventing fictitious dangers: some reported that part of Misenum had collapsed or another part was on fire, and although their tales were false they found others to believe them. A gleam of light returned but we took this to be a warning of the approaching flames rather than daylight.  However, the flames remained some distance off; then darkness came on once more and ashes began to fall again, this time in heavy showers. We rose from time to time and shook them off, otherwise we should have been buried and crushed beneath their weight. I could boast that not a groan or cry of fear escaped me in these perils, had I not derived some poor consolation in my mortal lot from the belief that the whole world was dying with me and I with it.

"At last the darkness thinned and dispersed into smoke or cloud; then there was genuine daylight, and the sun actually shown out, but yellowish as it is during and eclipse. We were terrified to see everything changed, buried deep in ashes like snowdrifts. We returned to Misenum where we attended to our physical needs as best we could, and then spent an anxious night alternating between hope and fear. Fear predominated, for the earthquakes went on, and several hysterical individuals made their own and other people’s calamities seem ludicrous in comparison with their frightful predictions. But even then, in spite of the dangers we had been through and were still expecting, my mother and I had still no intention of leaving until we had news of my uncle. 

"Of course the details are not important enough for history, and you will read them without any idea of recording them; if they seem scarcely worth putting in a letter, you have only yourself to blame for asking for them.” (Book 6, Letter 20 pg.171-173)

Pompeii victims: young family

Pompeii victims: fetal position

Pompeii victims: lost pet

Of all the books of letters that were published the most important is the one when he is the Governor of Bithynia-Pontus.  There we get a look of an emperor in communication with one of his lieutenants throughout his empire.  Pliny feels the need to check in all the time with the Emperor, sometimes the Emperor approves and sometimes he just tells Pliny to make a decision. Here is one letter I found very interesting.  

Pliny to the Emperor Trajan

"While I was visiting another part of the province, a widespread fire broke out at Nicomedia which destroyed many private houses and also two public buildings (the Elder Citizen’s Club and the Temple of Isis) although a road runs between them. It was fanned by the strong breeze  in the early stages, but it would not have spread so far but for the apathy of the populace; for it is generally agreed that people stood watching the disaster without bestirring themselves to do anything to stop it. Apart from this, there is not a single fire engine anywhere in the town, not a bucket nor any apparatus for fighting a fire. These will now be provided on my instructions.

"Will you, Sir, consider whether you think a company of firemen might be formed, limited to 150 members? I will see that no one shall be admitted who is not genuinely a fireman, and that the privileges granted shall not be abused: it will not be difficult to keep such a small number under observation.” (Book 10, Letter 33 pg.271)

            For the record I have no idea what a Roman fire engine would look like.  Seems like a reasonable request but the Emperor’s response is something downright weird.

Trajan to Pliny

"You may well have had the idea that it should be possible to form a company of firemen at Nicomedia on the model of those existing elsewhere, but we must remember that it is societies like these which have been responsible for the political disturbances in your province, particularly in its towns. If people assemble for a common purpose whatever name we give them and for whatever reason, they soon turn into a political club. It is a better policy then to provide the equipment necessary for dealing with fires, and to instruct property owners to make use of it, calling on the help of the crowds which collect if they find it necessary.” (Book 10, Letter 34 pg. 271-272)

Talk about a paranoid emperor.  ‘Don’t start a fire department because they might from a society that will try to overthrow the Empire.’  Trajan was one greatest of Rome’s Emperors but just because you are smart in one area of life does not make you smart in all areas. 

Of all the letters in Book 10 the one about the Christians, this probably one of—if not thee—most analyzed letters in history.

 Pliny to the Emperor Trajan

"It is my customer to refer all my difficulties to you, Sir, for no one is better able to resolve my doubts and to inform my ignorance.

"I have never been present at an examination of Christians. Consequently, I do not know nature of the extent of the punishments usually meted out to them, nor the grounds for starting an investigation and how far it should be pressed. Nor am I at all sure whether any distinction should be made between them on the ground of age or I young people and adults should be treated alike; whether a pardon ought to be granted to anyone retracting his beliefs, or if he has once professed Christianity, he shall gain nothing by renouncing it; and if whether it is the mere name of Christian which is punishable, even if innocent of crime, or rather the crimes associated with the name.

" For the moment this is the line I have taken with all persons brought before me on the charge of being Christians. I have asked them in person if they are Christians, and if they admit it, I repeat the question a second and third time, with a warning of the punishment awaiting them. If they persist, I order them to be led away for execution; for, whatever the nature of their admission, I am convinced that their stubbornness and unshakeable obstinacy ought not to go unpunished.

" There have been others similarly fanatical who are Roman citizens, I have entered them on a list of persons to be sent to Rome for trial.

"Now that I have begun to deal with this problem, as so often happens, the charges are becoming more widespread and increasing in variety. An anonymous pamphlet has been circulated which contains of a number of accused persons.  Amongst these I considered that I should dismiss any who denied that they were or ever had been Christians when they had repeated after me a formula of invocation to the gods and had made offerings of wine and incense to your statue (which I had ordered to be brought into court for this purpose along with the images of the gods), and furthermore had reviled the name of Christ: none of which things, I understand, any genuine Christian can be induced to do.

"Others, whose names were given to be by an informer, first admitted the charge and then denied it; they said that they had ceased to be Christians two or more years previously, and some of them even twenty years ago.  They all did reverence to your statue and the images of the gods in the same way as the others, and reviled in the name of Christ.  They also declared that the sum total of their guild or error amounted to no more than this: they had met regularly before dawn on a fixed day to chant verses alternately amongst themselves in honor of Christ as if to a god, and also to bind themselves by oath, not for any criminal purpose, but to abstain from theft, robbery, and adultery, to commit no breach of trust and not to deny a deposit when called upon to restore it.  After this ceremony it had been their custom to disperse and reassemble later to take food of an ordinary, harmless kind; but they had in fact given up this practice since my edict, issued on your instructions, which banned all political societies.  This made me decide it was all the more necessary to extract the truth by torture from two slave-women, whom they call deaconesses.  I found nothing but a degenerate sort of cult carried to extravagant lengths.

"I have therefore postponed any further examination and hastened to consult you.  The question seems to me to be worthy of your consideration, especially in view of the number of persons endangered; for a great many individuals of every age and class, both men and women, are being brought to trial, and this is likely to continue.  It is not only the towns, but villages and rural districts too which are infected through contact with this wretched cult.  I think though that it is still possible for it to be checked and directed to better ends, for there is no doubt that people have begun to throng the temples which had been almost entirely deserted for a long time; the sacred rites which had been allowed to lapse are being performed again, and flesh of sacrificial victims is on sale everywhere, though up till recently scarcely anyone could be found to buy it. It is easy to infer from this that a great many people could be reformed if they were given an opportunity to repent.” (Book 10, Letter 96 pg. 293-295)

            One of the biggest debates in history was how long did it take Christianity to grow to significant numbers.  Scholars have sharp disagreements over it and often go over this letter to make their point. Pliny sees it as a growing problem in his province, yet he has no idea who they are despite being a well-connected and educated statesman.  Trajan’s response is more telling.   

“Trajan to Pliny

You have followed the right course, my dear Pliny, in your examination of the cases against with being Christians, for it is impossible to lay down a general rule to a fixed formula. These people must not be hunted out; if they are brought before you and the charged against them is proved, they must be punished, but in the case of anyone who denies that he is a Christian, and shall makes it clear that he is not by offering prayers to our gods, he is to be pardoned as a result of his repentance however suspect his past conduct may be. But pamphlets circulated anonymously must play no part in any accusation.  They create the worst sort of precedent and are quite out of keeping with the spirit of our age.” (Book 10, Letter 97 pg. 295)

The Emperor who is so paranoid he does not want to see and organized fire department for fear of what it could turn into did not think the Christians amounted to any sort of threat.  Trajan’s letter is seen as evidence that most of the early emperors prior to the Crisis of the Third Century were not actively persecuting the Christians themselves; rather it was done at a more local level. 

Emperor Trajan, Pliny's boss who is afraid of organized firemen but not Christians.

            If you are looking for some great primary source material from antiquity it does not get much better than the Letters of the Younger Pliny.

 {Video was posted by List 25 on YouTube}